Specific and off-target immune responses following COVID-19 vaccination with ChAdOx1-S and BNT162b2 vaccines-an exploratory sub-study of the BRACE trial.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic led to the rapid development and deployment of several highly effective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Recent studies suggest that these vaccines may also have off-target effects on the immune system. We sought to determine and compare the off-target effects of the adenovirus vector ChAdOx1-S (Oxford-AstraZeneca) and modified mRNA BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) vaccines on immune responses to unrelated pathogens. METHODS: Prospective sub-study within the BRACE trial. Blood samples were collected from 284 healthcare workers before and 28 days after ChAdOx1-S or BNT162b2 vaccination. SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies were measured using ELISA, and whole blood cytokine responses to specific (SARS-CoV-2) and unrelated pathogen stimulation were measured by multiplex bead array. FINDINGS: Both vaccines induced robust SARS-CoV-2 specific antibody and cytokine responses. ChAdOx1-S vaccination increased cytokine responses to heat-killed (HK) Candida albicans and HK Staphylococcus aureus and decreased cytokine responses to HK Escherichia coli and BCG. BNT162b2 vaccination decreased cytokine response to HK E. coli and had variable effects on cytokine responses to BCG and resiquimod (R848). After the second vaccine dose, BNT162b2 recipients had greater specific and off-target cytokine responses than ChAdOx1-S recipients. INTERPRETATION: ChAdOx1-S and BNT162b2 vaccines alter cytokine responses to unrelated pathogens, indicative of potential off-target effects. The specific and off-target effects of these vaccines differ in their magnitude and breadth. The clinical relevance of these findings is uncertain and needs further study. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, National Health and Medical Research Council, Swiss National Science Foundation and the Melbourne Children's. BRACE trial funding is detailed in acknowledgements.

Kidney organoids reveal redundancy in viral entry pathways during ACE2-dependent SARS-CoV-2 infection.

With a high incidence of acute kidney injury among hospitalized COVID-19 patients, considerable attention has been focussed on whether SARS-CoV-2 specifically targets kidney cells to directly impact renal function, or whether renal damage is primarily an indirect outcome. To date, several studies have utilized kidney organoids to understand the pathogenesis of COVID-19, revealing the ability for SARS-CoV-2 to predominantly infect cells of the proximal tubule (PT), with reduced infectivity following administration of soluble ACE2. However, the immaturity of standard human kidney organoids represents a significant hurdle, leaving the preferred SARS-CoV-2 processing pathway, existence of alternate viral receptors, and the effect of common hypertensive medications on the expression of ACE2 in the context of SARS-CoV-2 exposure incompletely understood. Utilizing a novel kidney organoid model with enhanced PT maturity, genetic- and drug-mediated inhibition of viral entry and processing factors confirmed the requirement for ACE2 for SARS-CoV-2 entry but showed that the virus can utilize dual viral spike protein processing pathways downstream of ACE2 receptor binding. These include TMPRSS- and CTSL/CTSB-mediated non-endosomal and endocytic pathways, with TMPRSS10 likely playing a more significant role in the non-endosomal pathway in renal cells than TMPRSS2. Finally, treatment with the antihypertensive ACE inhibitor, lisinopril, showed negligible impact on receptor expression or susceptibility of renal cells to infection. This study represents the first in-depth characterization of viral entry in stem cell-derived human kidney organoids with enhanced PTs, providing deeper insight into the renal implications of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. IMPORTANCE: Utilizing a human iPSC-derived kidney organoid model with improved proximal tubule (PT) maturity, we identified the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 entry in renal cells, confirming ACE2 as the sole receptor and revealing redundancy in downstream cell surface TMPRSS- and endocytic Cathepsin-mediated pathways. In addition, these data address the implications of SARS-CoV-2 exposure in the setting of the commonly prescribed ACE-inhibitor, lisinopril, confirming its negligible impact on infection of kidney cells. Taken together, these results provide valuable insight into the mechanism of viral infection in the human kidney.

Parallel use of human stem cell lung and heart models provide insights for SARS-CoV-2 treatment.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) primarily infects the respiratory tract, but pulmonary and cardiac complications occur in severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). To elucidate molecular mechanisms in the lung and heart, we conducted paired experiments in human stem cell-derived lung alveolar type II (AT2) epithelial cell and cardiac cultures infected with SARS-CoV-2. With CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of ACE2, we demonstrated that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) was essential for SARS-CoV-2 infection of both cell types but that further processing in lung cells required TMPRSS2, while cardiac cells required the endosomal pathway. Host responses were significantly different; transcriptome profiling and phosphoproteomics responses depended strongly on the cell type. We identified several antiviral compounds with distinct antiviral and toxicity profiles in lung AT2 and cardiac cells, highlighting the importance of using several relevant cell types for evaluation of antiviral drugs. Our data provide new insights into rational drug combinations for effective treatment of a virus that affects multiple organ systems.

Antibody titres elicited by the 2018 seasonal inactivated influenza vaccine decline by 3 months post-vaccination but persist for at least 6 months.

BACKGROUND: In Australia, seasonal inactivated influenza vaccine is typically offered in April. However, the onset, peak and end of a typical influenza season vary, and optimal timing for vaccination remains unclear. Here, we investigated vaccine-induced antibody response kinetics over 6 months in different age groups. METHODS: We conducted a prospective serosurvey among 71 adults aged 18-50 years, 15 community-dwelling ('healthy') and 16 aged-care facility resident ('frail') older adults aged ≥65 years who received the 2018 southern hemisphere vaccines. Sera were collected at baseline, and 1, 2, 4, and 6 months post-vaccination. Antibody titres were measured by haemagglutination inhibition or microneutralisation assays. Geometric mean titres were estimated using random effects regression modelling and superimposed on 2014-2018 influenza season epidemic curves. RESULTS: Antibody titres peaked 1.2-1.3 months post-vaccination for all viruses, declined by 3 months post-vaccination but, notably, persisted above baseline after 6 months in all age groups by 1.3- to 1.5-fold against A(H1N1)pdm09, 1.7- to 2-fold against A(H3N2), 1.7- to 2.1-fold against B/Yamagata and 1.8-fold against B/Victoria. Antibody kinetics were similar among different age groups. Antibody responses were poor against cell-culture grown compared to egg-grown viruses. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest subtype-specific antibody-mediated protection persists for at least 6 months, which corresponds to the duration of a typical influenza season.

Enhanced metanephric specification to functional proximal tubule enables toxicity screening and infectious disease modelling in kidney organoids.

While pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney organoids are now being used to model renal disease, the proximal nephron remains immature with limited evidence for key functional solute channels. This may reflect early mispatterning of the nephrogenic mesenchyme and/or insufficient maturation. Here we show that enhanced specification to metanephric nephron progenitors results in elongated and radially aligned proximalised nephrons with distinct S1 - S3 proximal tubule cell types. Such PT-enhanced organoids possess improved albumin and organic cation uptake, appropriate KIM-1 upregulation in response to cisplatin, and improved expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors resulting in increased viral replication. The striking proximo-distal orientation of nephrons resulted from localized WNT antagonism originating from the organoid stromal core. PT-enhanced organoids represent an improved model to study inherited and acquired proximal tubular disease as well as drug and viral responses.

Parallel use of pluripotent human stem cell lung and heart models provide new insights for treatment of SARS-CoV-2.

SARS-CoV-2 primarily infects the respiratory tract, but pulmonary and cardiac complications occur in severe COVID-19. To elucidate molecular mechanisms in the lung and heart, we conducted paired experiments in human stem cell-derived lung alveolar type II (AT2) epithelial cell and cardiac cultures infected with SARS-CoV-2. With CRISPR- Cas9 mediated knock-out of ACE2, we demonstrated that angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) was essential for SARS-CoV-2 infection of both cell types but further processing in lung cells required TMPRSS2 while cardiac cells required the endosomal pathway. Host responses were significantly different; transcriptome profiling and phosphoproteomics responses depended strongly on the cell type. We identified several antiviral compounds with distinct antiviral and toxicity profiles in lung AT2 and cardiac cells, highlighting the importance of using several relevant cell types for evaluation of antiviral drugs. Our data provide new insights into rational drug combinations for effective treatment of a virus that affects multiple organ systems. One-sentence summary: Rational treatment strategies for SARS-CoV-2 derived from human PSC models.

Enhanced metanephric specification to functional proximal tubule enables toxicity screening and infectious disease modelling in kidney organoids.

While pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney organoids are now being used to model renal disease, the proximal nephron remains immature with limited evidence for key functional solute channels. This may reflect early mispatterning of the nephrogenic mesenchyme and/or insufficient maturation. Here we show that enhanced specification to metanephric nephron progenitors results in elongated and radially aligned proximalised nephrons with distinct S1 - S3 proximal tubule cell types. Such PT-enhanced organoids possess improved albumin and organic cation uptake, appropriate KIM-1 upregulation in response to cisplatin, and improved expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors resulting in increased viral replication. The striking proximo-distal orientation of nephrons resulted from localized WNT antagonism originating from the organoid stromal core. PT-enhanced organoids represent an improved model to study inherited and acquired proximal tubular disease as well as drug and viral responses.

Off-target effects of bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination on immune responses to SARS-CoV-2: implications for protection against severe COVID-19.

Background and objectives: Because of its beneficial off-target effects against non-mycobacterial infectious diseases, bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination might be an accessible early intervention to boost protection against novel pathogens. Multiple epidemiological studies and randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are investigating the protective effect of BCG against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Using samples from participants in a placebo-controlled RCT aiming to determine whether BCG vaccination reduces the incidence and severity of COVID-19, we investigated the immunomodulatory effects of BCG on in vitro immune responses to SARS-CoV-2. Methods: This study used peripheral blood taken from participants in the multicentre RCT and BCG vaccination to reduce the impact of COVID-19 on healthcare workers (BRACE trial). The whole blood taken from BRACE trial participants was stimulated with γ-irradiated SARS-CoV-2-infected or mock-infected Vero cell supernatant. Cytokine responses were measured by multiplex cytokine analysis, and single-cell immunophenotyping was made by flow cytometry. Results: BCG vaccination, but not placebo vaccination, reduced SARS-CoV-2-induced secretion of cytokines known to be associated with severe COVID-19, including IL-6, TNF-α and IL-10. In addition, BCG vaccination promoted an effector memory phenotype in both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and an activation of eosinophils in response to SARS-CoV-2. Conclusions: The immunomodulatory signature of BCG's off-target effects on SARS-CoV-2 is consistent with a protective immune response against severe COVID-19.

Reprogrammed CRISPR-Cas13b suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication and circumvents its mutational escape through mismatch tolerance.

The recent dramatic appearance of variants of concern of SARS-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) highlights the need for innovative approaches that simultaneously suppress viral replication and circumvent viral escape from host immunity and antiviral therapeutics. Here, we employ genome-wide computational prediction and single-nucleotide resolution screening to reprogram CRISPR-Cas13b against SARS-CoV-2 genomic and subgenomic RNAs. Reprogrammed Cas13b effectors targeting accessible regions of Spike and Nucleocapsid transcripts achieved >98% silencing efficiency in virus-free models. Further, optimized and multiplexed Cas13b CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) suppress viral replication in mammalian cells infected with replication-competent SARS-CoV-2, including the recently emerging dominant variant of concern B.1.1.7. The comprehensive mutagenesis of guide-target interaction demonstrated that single-nucleotide mismatches does not impair the capacity of a potent single crRNA to simultaneously suppress ancestral and mutated SARS-CoV-2 strains in infected mammalian cells, including the Spike D614G mutant. The specificity, efficiency and rapid deployment properties of reprogrammed Cas13b described here provide a molecular blueprint for antiviral drug development to suppress and prevent a wide range of SARS-CoV-2 mutants, and is readily adaptable to other emerging pathogenic viruses.

BET inhibition blocks inflammation-induced cardiac dysfunction and SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Cardiac injury and dysfunction occur in COVID-19 patients and increase the risk of mortality. Causes are ill defined but could be through direct cardiac infection and/or inflammation-induced dysfunction. To identify mechanisms and cardio-protective drugs, we use a state-of-the-art pipeline combining human cardiac organoids with phosphoproteomics and single nuclei RNA sequencing. We identify an inflammatory "cytokine-storm", a cocktail of interferon gamma, interleukin 1ß, and poly(I:C), induced diastolic dysfunction. Bromodomain-containing protein 4 is activated along with a viral response that is consistent in both human cardiac organoids (hCOs) and hearts of SARS-CoV-2-infected K18-hACE2 mice. Bromodomain and extraterminal family inhibitors (BETi) recover dysfunction in hCOs and completely prevent cardiac dysfunction and death in a mouse cytokine-storm model. Additionally, BETi decreases transcription of genes in the viral response, decreases ACE2 expression, and reduces SARS-CoV-2 infection of cardiomyocytes. Together, BETi, including the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) breakthrough designated drug, apabetalone, are promising candidates to prevent COVID-19 mediated cardiac damage.

Convalescent plasma treatment for COVID-19: Tempering expectations with the influenza experience.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the zoonotic coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 has swept the world in 5 months. A proportion of cases develop severe respiratory tract infections progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome and a diverse set of complications involving different organ systems. Faced with a lack of coronavirus-specific antiviral drugs and vaccines, hundreds of clinical trials have been undertaken to evaluate repurposed drugs. Convalescent plasma from recovered patients is an attractive option because antibodies can have direct or indirect antiviral activity and immunotherapy works well in principle, in animal models, and in anecdotal reports. However, the benefits of convalescent plasma treatment can only be clearly established through carefully designed randomized clinical trials. The experience from investigations of convalescent plasma products for severe influenza offers a cautionary tale. Despite promising pilot studies, large multicenter randomized controlled trials failed to show a benefit of convalescent plasma or hyperimmune intravenous globulin for the treatment of severe influenza A virus infection. These studies provide important lessons that should inform the planning of adequately powered randomized controlled trials to evaluate the promise of convalescent plasma therapy in COVID-19 patients.

Passive immunization with influenza haemagglutinin specific monoclonal antibodies.

The isolation of broadly neutralising antibodies against the influenza haemagglutinin has spurred investigation into their clinical potential, and has led to advances in influenza virus biology and universal influenza vaccine development. Studies in animal models have been invaluable for demonstrating the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of broadly neutralising antibodies, for comparisons with antiviral drugs used as the standard of care, and for defining their mechanism of action and potential role in providing protection from airborne infection.

Antigen presenting cell-targeted proinsulin expression converts insulin-specific CD8+ T-cell priming to tolerance in autoimmune-prone NOD mice.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) results from autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic ß cells. Therapies need to incorporate strategies to overcome the genetic defects that impair induction or maintenance of peripheral T-cell tolerance and contribute to disease development. We tested whether the enforced expression of an islet autoantigen in antigen-presenting cells (APC) counteracted peripheral T-cell tolerance defects in autoimmune-prone NOD mice. We observed that insulin-specific CD8+ T cells transferred to mice in which proinsulin was transgenically expressed in APCs underwent several rounds of division and the majority were deleted. Residual insulin-specific CD8+ T cells were rendered unresponsive and this was associated with TCR downregulation, loss of tetramer binding and expression of a range of co-inhibitory molecules. Notably, accumulation and effector differentiation of insulin-specific CD8+ T cells in pancreatic lymph nodes was prominent in non-transgenic recipients but blocked by transgenic proinsulin expression. This shift from T-cell priming to T-cell tolerance exemplifies the tolerogenic capacity of autoantigen expression by APC and the capacity to overcome genetic tolerance defects.

Allergen-encoding bone marrow transfer inactivates allergic T cell responses, alleviating airway inflammation.

Memory Th2 cell responses underlie the development and perpetuation of allergic diseases. Because these states result from immune dysregulation, established Th2 cell responses represent a significant challenge for conventional immunotherapies. New approaches that overcome the detrimental effects of immune dysregulation are required. We tested whether memory Th2 cell responses were silenced using a therapeutic approach where allergen expression in DCs is transferred to sensitized recipients using BM cells as a vector for therapeutic gene transfer. Development of allergen-specific Th2 responses and allergen-induced airway inflammation was blocked by expression of allergen in DCs. Adoptive transfer studies showed that Th2 responses were inactivated by a combination of deletion and induction of T cell unresponsiveness. Transfer of BM encoding allergen expression targeted to DCs terminated, in an allergen-specific manner, Th2 responses in sensitized recipients. Importantly, when preexisting airway inflammation was present, there was effective silencing of Th2 cell responses, airway inflammation was alleviated, and airway hyperreactivity was reversed. The effectiveness of DC-targeted allergen expression to terminate established Th2 responses in sensitized animals indicates that exploiting cell-intrinsic T cell tolerance pathways could lead to development of highly effective immunotherapies.

APC-targeted proinsulin expression inactivates insulin-specific memory CD8+ T cells in NOD mice.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) results from T-cell-mediated autoimmune destruction of pancreatic ß cells. Effector T-cell responses emerge early in disease development and expand as disease progresses. Following ß-cell destruction, a long-lived T-cell memory is generated that represents a barrier to islet transplantation and other cellular insulin-replacement therapies. Development of effective immunotherapies that control or ablate ß-cell destructive effector and memory T-cell responses has the potential to prevent disease progression and recurrence. Targeting antigen expression to antigen-presenting cells inactivates cognate CD8+ effector and memory T-cell responses and has therapeutic potential. Here we investigated this in the context of insulin-specific responses in the non-obese diabetic mouse where genetic immune tolerance defects could impact on therapeutic tolerance induction. Insulin-specific CD8+ memory T cells transferred to mice expressing proinsulin in antigen-presenting cells proliferated in response to transgenically expressed proinsulin and the majority were rapidly deleted. A small proportion of transferred insulin-specific Tmem remained undeleted and these were antigen-unresponsive, exhibited reduced T cell receptor (TCR) expression and H-2Kd/insB15-23 tetramer binding and expressed co-inhibitory molecules. Expression of proinsulin in antigen-presenting cells also abolished the diabetogenic capacity of CD8+ effector T cells. Therefore, destructive insulin-specific CD8+ T cells are effectively inactivated by enforced proinsulin expression despite tolerance defects that exist in diabetes-prone NOD mice. These findings have important implications in developing immunotherapeutic approaches to T1D and other T-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Short-course rapamycin treatment enables engraftment of immunogenic gene-engineered bone marrow under low-dose irradiation to permit long-term immunological tolerance.

BACKGROUND: Application of genetically modified hematopoietic stem cells is increasingly mooted as a clinically relevant approach to protein replacement therapy, immune tolerance induction or conditions where both outcomes may be helpful. Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC)-mediated gene therapy often requires highly toxic pretransfer recipient conditioning to provide a 'niche' so that transferred HSPCs can engraft effectively and to prevent immune rejection of neoantigen-expressing engineered HSPCs. For widespread clinical application, reducing conditioning toxicity is an important requirement, but reduced conditioning can render neoantigen-expressing bone marrow (BM) and HSC susceptible to immune rejection if immunity is retained. METHODS: BM or HSPC-expressing OVA ubiquitously (actin.OVA) or targeted to MHC II+ cells was transferred using low-dose (300 cGy) total body irradiation. Recipients were administered rapamycin, cyclosporine or vehicle for 3 weeks commencing at BM transfer. Engraftment was determined using CD45 congenic donors and recipients. Induction of T-cell tolerance was tested by immunising recipients and analysing in-vivo cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activity. The effect of rapamycin on transient effector function during tolerance induction was tested using an established model of tolerance induction where antigen is targeted to dendritic cells. RESULTS: Immune rejection of neoantigen-expressing BM and HSPCs after low-dose irradiation was prevented by a short course of rapamycin, but not cyclosporine, treatment. Whereas transient T-cell tolerance developed in recipients of OVA-expressing BM administered vehicle, only when engraftment of neoantigen-expressing BM was facilitated with rapamycin treatment did stable, long-lasting T-cell tolerance develop. Rapamycin inhibited transient effector function development during tolerance induction and inhibited development of CTL activity in recipients of OVA-expressing BM. CONCLUSIONS: Rapamycin acts to suppress acquisition of transient T-cell effector function during peripheral tolerance induction elicited by HSPC-encoded antigen. By facilitating engraftment, short-course rapamycin permits development of long-term stable T-cell tolerance.

Respiratory syncytial virus human experimental infection model: provenance, production, and sequence of low-passaged memphis-37 challenge virus.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children and is responsible for as many as 199,000 childhood deaths annually worldwide. To support the development of viral therapeutics and vaccines for RSV, a human adult experimental infection model has been established. In this report, we describe the provenance and sequence of RSV Memphis-37, the low-passage clinical isolate used for the model's reproducible, safe, experimental infections of healthy, adult volunteers. The predicted amino acid sequences for major proteins of Memphis-37 are compared to nine other RSV A and B amino acid sequences to examine sites of vaccine, therapeutic, and pathophysiologic interest. Human T- cell epitope sequences previously defined by in vitro studies were observed to be closely matched between Memphis-37 and the laboratory strain RSV A2. Memphis-37 sequences provide baseline data with which to assess: (i) virus heterogeneity that may be evident following virus infection/transmission, (ii) the efficacy of candidate RSV vaccines and therapeutics in the experimental infection model, and (iii) the potential emergence of escape mutants as a consequence of experimental drug treatments. Memphis-37 is a valuable tool for pre-clinical research, and to expedite the clinical development of vaccines, therapeutic immunomodulatory agents, and other antiviral drug strategies for the protection of vulnerable populations against RSV disease.

Intranasal administration of retinyl palmitate with a respiratory virus vaccine corrects impaired mucosal IgA response in the vitamin A-deficient host.

Our previous studies showed that intranasal vaccination of vitamin A-deficient (VAD) mice failed to induce normal levels of upper respiratory tract IgA, a first line of defense against respiratory virus infection. Here we demonstrate that the impaired responses in VAD animals are corrected by a single intranasal application of retinyl palmitate with the vaccine. Results encourage the clinical testing of intranasal vitamin A supplements to improve protection against respiratory viral disease in VAD populations.

Respiratory tract epithelial cells express retinaldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH1A and enhance IgA production by stimulated B cells in the presence of vitamin A.

Morbidity and mortality due to viral infections are major health concerns, particularly when individuals are vitamin A deficient. Vitamin A deficiency significantly impairs mucosal IgA, a first line of defense against virus at its point of entry. Previous reports have suggested that CD11c(Hi) dendritic cells (DCs) of the gastrointestinal tract produce retinaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH1A), which metabolizes vitamin A precursors to retinoic acid to support normal mucosal immunity. Given that the upper respiratory tract (URT) and gastrointestinal tract share numerous characteristics, we asked if the CD11c(Hi) DCs of the URT might also express ALDH1A. To address this question, we examined both CD11c(Hi) test cells and CD11c(Lo/neg) control cells from nasal tissue. Surprisingly, the CD11c(Lo/neg) cells expressed more ALDH1A mRNA per cell than did the CD11c(Hi) cells. Further evaluation of CD11c(Lo/neg) populations by PCR and staining of respiratory tract sections revealed that epithelial cells were robust producers of both ALDH1A mRNA and protein. Moreover, CD11c(Lo/neg) cells from nasal tissue (and a homogeneous respiratory tract epithelial cell line) enhanced IgA production by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated splenocyte cultures in the presence of the retinoic acid precursor retinol. Within co-cultures, there was increased expression of MCP-1, IL-6, and GM-CSF, the latter two of which were necessary for IgA upregulation. All three cytokines/chemokines were expressed by the LPS-stimulated respiratory tract epithelial cell line in the absence of splenocytes. These data demonstrate the autonomous potential of respiratory tract epithelial cells to support vitamin A-mediated IgA production, and encourage the clinical testing of intranasal vitamin A supplements in vitamin A deficient populations to improve mucosal immune responses toward respiratory tract pathogens and vaccines.